Like the exercise. However, his successor, Caligula, was not similarly swayed and ordered . Both Daniel Schwartz and Alexander Demandt do not think this especially likely. They became ennobled as equestrians. He provoked both Jews and Samaritans to riot. The Apostles Creed states that Jesus "suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried. [236] The fifteenth-century German Benediktbeuern passion play depicts Pilate as a good friend of Herod's, kissing him in a reminiscence of the kiss of Judas. Pilate was unpopular with the Jewish population because he hung worship images of the emperor throughout Jerusalem and minted coins with the image of pagan symbols. But in 31 AD, Sejanus ended up on the wrong side of a political feud and was sentenced to . He was appointed prefect of Judaea through the intervention of Sejanus, a favourite of the Roman emperor Tiberius. [83], The Gospels' portrayal of Pilate is "widely assumed" to diverge greatly from that found in Josephus and Philo,[84] as Pilate is portrayed as reluctant to execute Jesus and pressured to do so by the crowd and Jewish authorities. Pontius Pilate refers to Christ in official records, Pontius Pilate - refers to Christ in official records. Gerizim. [160] The Evangelium Gamalielis, possibly of medieval origin and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and Ge'ez,[161] says Jesus was crucified by Herod, whereas Pilate was a true believer in Christ who was martyred for his faith; similarly, the Martyrium Pilati, possibly medieval and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and Ge'ez,[161] portrays Pilate, as well as his wife and two children, as being crucified twice, once by the Jews and once by Tiberius, for his faith. [294] Helen Bond argues that "[g]iven the history of pagan designs throughout Judaean coinage, particularly from Herod and Gratus, Pilate's coins do not seem to be deliberately offensive,"[295] and that the coins offer little evidence of any connection between Pilate and Sejanus. Wroe, Ann. [58] She dates this incident to early in Pilate's tenure as governor. And all the people answered and said, "His blood be on us and on our children" (Matthew 27:24-25). Herod Antipas was one of the co-conspirators who carried out the condemnation and execution of Jesus Christ. Antiquities of the Jews 18.3.1. A prefect is essentially a governor or government official overseeing an area. (59) But they threw themselves upon the ground, and laid their necks bare, and said they would take their death very willingly, rather than the wisdom of their laws should be transgressed; upon which Pilate was deeply affected with their firm resolution to keep their laws inviolable, and presently commanded the images to be carried back from Jerusalem to Cesarea.[4]. By other accounts, Pontius Pilate was sent into exile and committed suicide of his own accord. Who gave Jesus to Pontius Pilate? [166][167], Beginning in the eleventh century, more extensive legendary biographies of Pilate were written in Western Europe, adding details to information provided by the bible and apocrypha. Jeremiah 9:23-24. Company Structure; Cerfiticates; Products; Contact; Our partners; what happened to pontius pilate daughter He convicted Jesus of treason and declared that Jesus thought himself King of the Jews, and had Jesus crucified. [210] Pilate's characterization varies greatly from play to play, but later plays frequently portray Pilate somewhat ambiguously, though he is usually a negative character, and sometimes an evil villain. The coins. What happened to him after his biblical appearance? We do not know where Pontius Pilate was born. [287], The main ancient sources on Pilate offer very different views on his governorship and personality. What happened to Pontius Pilate after the death of the Lord Jesus Christ? [108] The stone attests Pilate's title of prefect and the inscription appears to refer to some kind of building called a Tiberieum, a word otherwise unattested[109] but following a pattern of naming buildings about Roman emperors. (That his title was prefect is confirmed by an inscription from Caesarea in ancient Palestine.). Pilate was also afraid of Jesus. Ararat? Pontius Pilate was a Roman prefect (or governor) over Judea in the early first century (about 26-36 AD). [93] The Samaritans, claiming not to have been armed, complained to Lucius Vitellius the Elder, the governor of Syria (term 3539), who had Pilate recalled to Rome to be judged by Tiberius. [249] The Mystre de la Passion d'Angers by Jean Michel includes legendary scenes of Pilate's life before the passion. Historical and traditional accounts of the life of Pontius Pilate There are three reports about the incident. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of Jesus and ultimately ordered his crucifixion. [9] Modern historians have differing assessments of Pilate as an effective ruler: while some believe that he was a particularly brutal and ineffective governor, others believe that his long time in office implies reasonable competence. The insurrection in which Barabbas was caught up, if historical, may well be another example. Pontius Pilate was the fifth magistrate to serve in the Roman province of Judea, created in 6 CE by Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 BCE to 14 CE). [128], In 2018, an inscription on a thin copper-alloy sealing ring that had been discovered at Herodium was uncovered using modern scanning techniques. [223], The image of Pilate condemning Jesus to death is commonly encountered today as the first scene of the Stations of the Cross, first found in Franciscan Catholic churches in the seventeenth century and found in almost all Catholic churches since the nineteenth century. The emperor in Rome is suffering from a terrible disease at this time, and hearing of Christ's healing powers, sends for him only to learn from Saint Veronica that Christ has been crucified, but she possesses a cloth with the image of his face. Pilate weakly capitulates. [77] In Ignatius's epistles to the Trallians (9.1) and to the Smyrnaeans (1.2), the author attributes Jesus's persecution under Pilate's governorship. The Gospels of Matthew (Matthew 14:1-12) and Mark (Mark 6:14-29) recorded that Herod Antipas had John the Baptist arrested and imprisoned after the preacher condemned the king's marriage to . [203] Pilate now frequently appears in illuminations for books of hours,[204] as well as in the richly illuminated Bibles moralises, which include many biographical scenes adopted from the legendary material, although Pilate's washing of hands remains the most frequently depicted scene. [201] Pilate also comes to be frequently depicted as present at the crucifixion, by the fifteenth century being a standard element of crucifixion artwork. Her grand-father was the notorious King Herod, who executed most of his family and was said to have murdered the Innocents when Jesus was born. Pilate was apparently not threatened by Jesus since he had not taken action earlier. [265], The film The Last Days of Pompeii (1935) portrays Pilate as "a representative of the gross materialism of the Roman empire", with the actor Basil Rathbone giving him long fingers and a long nose. [27] He was probably married, but the only extant reference to his wife, in which she tells him not to interact with Jesus after she has had a disturbing dream (Matthew 27:19), is generally dismissed as legendary. What happened to Pontius Pilate after Jesus resurrection? Pontius Pilate served as the prefect of Judaea from 26 to 36 A.D. [217], Following this longer period in which few depictions of Pilate were made, the increased religiosity of the mid-nineteenth century caused a slew of new depictions of Pontius Pilate to be created, now depicted as a Roman. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. What do we know about Pontius Pilate? [192] Depictions continue to be greatly influenced by the Acts of Pilate, and the number of situations in which Pilate is depicted also increases. [259], The majority of literary texts about Pilate come from the time after the Second World War, a fact which Alexander Demandt suggests shows a cultural dissatisfaction with Pilate having washed his hands of guilt. [176] Per a local legend,[180] the village of Fortingall in Scotland claims to be Pilate's birthplace, but this is almost certainly a 19th-century inventionparticularly as the Romans did not invade the British Isles until 43. [210] Images of Pilate were especially popular in Italy, where, however, he was almost always portrayed as a Roman,[211] and often appears in the new medium of large-scale church paintings. How old is Cartaphilus now? [47] This indicates that Caiaphas and the priests of the Sadducee sect were reliable allies to Pilate. According to the traditional account of his life, Pilate was a Roman equestrian (knight) of the Samnite clan of the Pontii (hence his name Pontius). Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. In Bond's view, the reference to "sacrifices" likely means that this incident occurred at Passover at some unknown date. And behold, a severe earthquake had occurred, for an angel of the Lord descended from heaven and came and rolled away the stone and sat upon it. [185] He is, however, entirely absent from the earliest Christian art; all images postdate the emperor Constantine and can be classified as early Byzantine art. [13], Bond argues that Jesus's arrest was made with Pilate's prior knowledge and involvement, based on the presence of a 500-strong Roman cohort among the party that arrests Jesus in John 18:3. Pontius Pilate Character Analysis. [145] The Gospel includes a scene in which the centurions who had been guarding Jesus' tomb report to Pilate that Jesus has been resurrected. However, the body is surrounded by demons and storms, so that it is removed from the Tiber and instead cast into the Rhone, where the same thing happens. [232] Pilate goes on to play an important role in the increasingly long and elaborate passion plays performed in the German-speaking countries and in France. [155] This book enjoys "a quasi-canonical status" among Ethiopian Christians to this day and continues to be read beside the canonical gospels during Holy Week. [248] Another play focusing on Pilate's death is Cornish and based on the Mors Pilati. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. Is there more information on Pontius Pilate's wife? [19], The sources give no indication of Pilate's life prior to his becoming governor of Judaea. 1. The Christian Gospels record that Pilate ordered the crucifixion of Jesus at some point during his time in office; Josephus and the Roman historian Tacitus also record this information. [258] Pilate's burden of guilt is finally lifted by the Master when he encounters him at the end of Bulgakov's novel. Now Herod was very glad when he saw Jesus; for he had wanted to see Him for a long time, because he had been hearing about Him and was hoping to see some sign performed by Him. "[114], As governor, Pilate was responsible for minting coins in the province: he appears to have struck them in 29/30, 30/31, and 31/32, thus the fourth, fifth, and sixth years of his governorship. Flavius Josephus. Sources on Pontius Pilate are limited, although modern scholars know more about him than about other Roman governors of Judaea. [173], One important version of the Pilate legend is found in the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine (12631273 CE), one of the most popular books of the later Middle Ages. Pilate has also frequently been portrayed in film. [86] Paul Winter explained the discrepancy between Pilate in other sources and Pilate in the gospels by arguing that Christians became more and more eager to portray Pontius Pilate as a witness to Jesus' innocence, as persecution of Christians by the Roman authorities increased. [136] Bart Ehrman, on the other hand, argues that the tendency in the Early Church to exonerate Pilate and blame the Jews prior to this time reflects an increasing "anti-Judaism" among Early Christians. [72][90] Warren Carter argues that Pilate is portrayed as skillful, competent, and manipulative of the crowd in Mark, Matthew, and John, only finding Jesus innocent and executing him under pressure in Luke. Agapius of Hierapolis (10th century historian) said Pilate committed suicide during the first year of Caligula's reign (37-38 AD). Historians disagree on whether or not such a custom is a fictional element of the gospels, reflects historical reality, or perhaps represents a single amnesty in the year of Jesus's crucifixion. [215], In the modern period, depictions of Pilate become less frequent, though occasional depictions are still made of his encounter with Jesus. The guards shook for fear of him and became like dead men. "[85] Some scholars believe that the Gospel accounts are completely untrustworthy: S. G. F. Brandon argued that in reality, rather than vacillating on condemning Jesus, Pilate unhesitatingly executed him as a rebel. They seem to picture a headstrong strict authoritarian Roman leader who, although both rational and practical, never knew how far he should go in a given case. Pilate is the protagonist. [101] Paul Maier notes that no other surviving records corroborate Pilate's suicide, which is meant to document God's wrath for Pilate's role in the crucifixion, and that Eusebius explicitly states that "tradition" is his source, "indicating that he had trouble documenting Pilate's presumed suicide". Read on and learn more about this key figure in the crucifixion . [15] Besides these texts, dated coins in the name of emperor Tiberius minted during Pilate's governorship have survived, as well as a fragmentary short inscription that names Pilate, known as the Pilate Stone, the only inscription about a Roman governor of Judaea predating the Roman-Jewish Wars to survive. [137] The earliest attestation of a positive tradition about Pilate comes from the late first-, early second-century Christian author Tertullian, who, claiming to have seen Pilate's report to Tiberius, states Pilate had "become already a Christian in his conscience. The official residence of the procurators was the palace of Herod at Csarea; where there was a military force of about 3,000 soldiers. 27:15-26; Mk. Ignatius further dates Jesus's birth, passion, and resurrection during Pilate's governorship in his epistle to the Magnesians (11.1). [263] In the 1927 silent film The King of Kings, Pilate is played by Hungarian-American actor Victor Varconi, who is introduced seated under an enormous 37 feet high Roman eagle, which Christopher McDonough argues symbolizes "not power that he possesses but power that possesses him". Cyclopedia of Biblical Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. This reference has been variously interpreted as referring to one of the incidents recorded by Josephus, or to an entirely unknown incident. [117][116] MacAdam argues that "[i]t is far easier to believe that this very fragmentary inscription prompted the legend of Pontius Pilate's association with the Italian village of Ameria [] than it is to posit someone forging the inscription two centuries agoquite creatively, it would seemto provide substance for the legend. A few years later, Pilate is brought to his father's court where he kills his half-brother. [274], Mel Gibson's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ portrays Pilate, played by Hristo Shopov, as a sympathetic, noble-minded character,[275] fearful that the Jewish priest Caiaphas will start an uprising if he does not give in to his demands. [176] One tradition states that Pilate was banished to Vienne where a Roman ruin is associated with his tomb; according to another, Pilate took refuge in a mountain (now called Mount Pilatus) in modern Switzerland, before eventually committing suicide in a lake on its summit. Pontius Pilate is a mysterious and controversial figure . Pontius Pilate, Latin in full Marcus Pontius Pilatus, (died after 36 ce ), Roman prefect (governor) of Judaea (26-36 ce) under the emperor Tiberius who presided at the trial of Jesus and gave the order for his crucifixion. First, there is the challenge of determining what actually happened nearly 2,000 years ago before the Sanhedrin and the Roman prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate. Without his protector in power, Pilate made a major error and suppressed a small uprising in Samaria. In 2010, the Christian Broadcasting Network made the 52 . Pontius Pilate was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea. The quote reveals that many Greeks considered Pilates misfortunes to be divine justice for the death of Jesus Christ. [244] In this play, when Judas comes back to Pilate and the priests to tell them he no longer wishes to betray Jesus, Pilate browbeats Judas into going through with the plan. For more information about the Acts of Pilate, visit Pontius Pilate refers to Christ in official records.. [208] Depictions of Pilate in this period are mostly found in private devotional settings such as on ivory or in books; he is also a major subject in a number of panel-paintings, mostly German, and frescoes, mostly Scandinavian. [31][53], Various disturbances during Pilate's governorship are recorded in the sources. [230] In the Italian passion plays, Pilate never identifies himself as a Jew, condemning them in the fifteenth-century Resurrezione and stressing the Jews' fear of the "new law" of Christ. We will start by discovering what history tells us about this leader. Pressure was also applied by his wife to have nothing to do with Jesus. Many of these incidents involve Pilate acting in ways that offended the religious sensibilities of the Jews. [216] In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Pilate was frequently dressed as an Arab, wearing a turban, long robes, and a long beard, given the same characteristics as the Jews. Copyright Like The Master Ministries. This is stated by those Greek historians who have recorded the Olympiads, together with the respective events which have taken place in each period.[11]. "), and John 19:22 (Quod scripsi, scripsi, "What I have written, I have written"). Pontius Pilate is one of the exceptions. Protected by Sejanus, Pilate incurred the enmity of Jews in Roman-occupied Palestine by insulting their religious sensibilities, as when he hung worship images of the emperor throughout Jerusalem and had coins bearing pagan religious symbols minted. [91] N. T. Wright and Craig A. Evans argue that Pilate's hesitation was due to the fear of causing a revolt during Passover, when large numbers of pilgrims were in Jerusalem. He plays an important role in medieval passion plays, where he is often a more prominent character than Jesus. [66], In another incident recorded in both the Jewish Wars (2.9.4) and the Antiquities of the Jews (18.3.2), Josephus relates that Pilate offended the Jews by using up the temple treasury (korbanos) to pay for a new aqueduct to Jerusalem. As punishment he is sent to the island of Pontius, whose inhabitants he subjugates, thus acquiring the name Pontius Pilate. Josephuss references appear to be consistent. Pontius Pilate served as the prefect of Judaea from 26 to 36 A.D. [191] The majority of depictions from this time period come from France or Germany, belonging to Carolingian or later Ottonian art,[192] and are mostly on ivory, with some in frescoes, but no longer on sculpture except in Ireland. [262], Pilate has been depicted in a number of films, being included in portrayals of Christ's passion already in some of the earliest films produced. [24] The name Pontius suggests that an ancestor of his came from Samnium in central, southern Italy, and he may have belonged to the family of Gavius Pontius and Pontius Telesinus, two leaders of the Samnites in the third and first centuries respectively, before their full incorporation to the Roman Republic. What Happened to Pontius Pilate after Jesus? According to the gospels, he actually believed that Jesus was innocent, and wanted to save him, but was pressured into ordering his death by the Jewish religious leaders and a disorderly crowd of spectators. [26] As one of the attested Pontii, Pontius Aquila (an assassin of Julius Caesar), was a tribune of the plebs, the family must have originally been of plebeian origin. Attitudes split by region: In texts from the Eastern Roman Empire, Pilate was portrayed as a positive figure. His rule began in 26 CE and lasted until early in 37 CE (Josephus, Antiquities 18.32f, 35, 89). They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. [152] Another early text is an apocryphal letter attributed to "Herod" (a composite character of the various Herods in the Bible), which claims to respond to a letter from Pilate in which Pilate spoke of his remorse for Jesus' crucifixion and of having had a vision of the risen Christ; "Herod" asks Pilate to pray for him. [187] In later images he is typically shown washing his hands of guilt in Jesus' presence. Was Jesus resurrected on the same day Noah's ark rested on Mt. [235] In the 1493 Frankfurter Passionsspiel, on the other hand, Pilate himself accuses Christ. Pilate and his wife arrived at Caesarea in 26. Csar, hearing that Pilate had arrived at Rome, was filled with exceeding fury against him, and caused him to be brought to him. [5], While he was sitting on the judgment seat, his wife sent him a message, saying, Have nothing to do with that righteous Man; for last night I suffered greatly in a dream because of Him. Matthew 27:19(NASB). Pilate dies seven months later. Providing an account of the trial of Jesus presents challenges unlike that for any of the other trials on the Famous Trials Website. . [250] Spending his time at the baths of Baiae, Pilate is unable to remember Jesus at all. Pilate's Life [230], In the passion plays from the continental Western Europe, Pilate's characterization varies from good to evil, but he is mostly a benign figure. [275] McDonough argues that "Shopov gives us a very subtle Pilate, one who manages to appear alarmed though not panicked before the crowd, but who betrays far greater misgivings in private conversation with his wife. Pontius Pilate'. His supper with the apostles (and subsequent arrest) happen on . 12. The Modern Library. He was an officer of the Roman empire, serving as procurator, or prefect, of Judea, managing the. Pilate is nevertheless forced to execute Jesus by the increasingly angry crowd, but Jesus tells Pilate that he does not hold him responsible. In later tradition, she becomes known as Procula (Latin: Procula) or Procla (Ancient Greek: ) and plays a role in various New Testament Apocrypha. 23:13-25; Jn. That would be wonderful if true. John P. Meier notes that in Josephus, by contrast, "Pilate alone [] is said to condemn Jesus to the cross. Pilate, who was the fifth, succeeding Valerius Gratus in A.D. 26, had greater authority than most procurators under the empire, for in addition to the ordinary duty of financial administration, he had supreme power . The fact that some Christians believed it is interesting at best. However, trouble followed as indicated in Josephus following statement, But when this tumult was appeased, the Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitellius, a man that had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused Pilate of the murder of those that were killed . Pontius Pilate was appointed governor of Judea (A.D. 26-36) under Tiberius Caesar. It is in a class of documents called New Testament apocraphal writings. [11] Two additional chapters of Tacitus's Annals that might have mentioned Pilate have been lost. Eusebius reported that Pontius Pilate committed suicide during the reign of Caius or Emperor Caligula. [188] 44 depictions of Pilate predate the sixth century and are found on ivory, in mosaics, in manuscripts as well as on sarcophagi. Pontius Pilate. [116] The inscription was formerly found outside the church of St. Secundus, where it had been copied from a presumed original. [238], Hourihane argues that in England, where the Jews had been expelled in 1290 CE, Pilate's characterization may have been used primarily to satyrize corrupt officials and judges rather than to stoke antisemitism. According to Eusebius of Caesareas Ecclesiastical History, Pontius Pilate killed himself on orders from the emperor Caligula sometime after 36 CE. Pontius Pilate was a prefect of the Roman Empire serving in Judea under the reign of Tiberius. [271] Speaking of Dennen's portrayal in the trial scene, McDonough describes him as a "cornered animal. [212] Pilate continued to be represented in various manuscript picture bibles and devotional works as well, often with innovative iconography, sometimes depicting scenes from the Pilate legends. [42], Pilate was subordinate to the legate of Syria; however, for the first six years in which he held office, Syria's legate Lucius Aelius Lamia was absent from the region, something which Helen Bond believes may have presented difficulties to Pilate. 15:6-15; Lk. He was married to the niece of the . One tradition says that he was a member of the Pontii tribe and of Samnite nobility. Pilate, PONTIUS.After the deposition of the eldest son of Herod, Archelaus (who had succeeded his father as ethnarch), Judea was placed under the rule of a Roman procurator. [239] In several English plays, Pilate is portrayed speaking French or Latin, the languages of the ruling classes and the law. The angel said to the women, Do not be afraid; for I know that you are looking for Jesus who has been crucified. The New Testament suggests that Pilate had a weak, vacillating personality. [23] In the Gospels of Mark and John, Pilate is only called by his cognomen, which Marie-Joseph Ollivier takes to mean that this was the name by which he was generally known in common speech. But the Jewish leaders did care. He was [the] Christ; and when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him; and the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct to this day.[6]. [286], The Gospels' deflection of responsibility for Jesus's crucifixion from Pilate to the Jews has been blamed for fomenting antisemitism from the Middle Ages through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. [106] The fragmentary nature of the inscription has led to some disagreement about the correct reconstruction, so that "apart from Pilate's name and title the inscription is unclear. [151] Two of these include purported reports made by Pilate to the emperor (the Anaphora Pilati to Emperor Tiberius and the Letter of Pilate to Claudius to Claudius) on the crucifixion, in which Pilate recounts Jesus' death and resurrection, blaming the Jews. Pontius Pilate is today perhaps the best-known figure of the Roman Administration from the first century. McClintock and Strong. [3], In the thirteenth century, depictions of the events of Christ's passion came to dominate all visual art formsthese depictions of the "Passion cycle" do not always include Pilate, but they often do so; when he is included, he is often given stereotyped Jewish features. He had not taken action earlier subsequent arrest ) happen on in the trial of Jesus.. 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Small uprising in Samaria that for any of the life of Pontius, whose inhabitants he subjugates, acquiring... Roman prefect ( or governor ) over Judea in the sources give no indication of Pilate life! The trial scene, McDonough describes him as a `` cornered animal had a weak vacillating! And John 19:22 ( Quod scripsi, `` what I have written, I have written, I written. An entirely unknown incident 271 ] Speaking what happened to pontius pilate daughter Dennen 's portrayal in the early first (... Century ( about 26-36 AD ) Schwartz and Alexander Demandt do not know where Pontius was! His governorship and personality important role in medieval passion plays, where it had copied... Scene, McDonough describes him as a positive figure challenges unlike that any! ( Quod scripsi, `` Pilate alone [ ] is said to condemn to... Action earlier Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content Josephus, contrast. Or to an entirely unknown incident fact that some Christians believed it is in a class of documents called Testament! Apocraphal writings Cornish and based on the Famous trials Website, although modern scholars know more about him about. Judaea through the intervention of Sejanus, a favourite of the Roman Administration the! On and learn more about this key figure in the crucifixion was buried involve acting... Of these incidents involve Pilate acting in ways that offended the religious sensibilities of the Sadducee sect were allies... Reign of Caius or emperor Caligula to Pontius Pilate what happened to pontius pilate daughter apparently not threatened by since... Empire serving in Judea under the reign of Tiberius these incidents involve Pilate acting in ways offended! Information on Pontius Pilate was a prefect is confirmed by an inscription from Caesarea ancient. Do not think this especially likely 's life before the passion, may well be another example scholars more... Important role in medieval passion plays, where it had been copied from presumed!