Tulving suggested that information about the physical surroundings (external context) and about the physical or psychological state of the learner (internal context) is stored at the same time as information is learned. British journal of Psychology, 71(1), 99-104. We will look more closely at this idea later in the. Cognitive state can impact memory recall as well. Imagine, for example, that participants judge the guilt of 10 attractive defendants and 10 unattractive defendants. He concluded that "framing plays a powerful role in plea bargaining.". This brevity makes them easier for respondents to understand and faster for them to complete. However, not all experiments can use a within-subjects design nor would it be desirable todo so. Instead of having people make judgments about all 10 defendants of one type followed by all 10 defendants of the other type, the researcher could present all 20 defendants in a sequence that mixed the two types. The disadvantage is that respondents are more likely to skip open-ended items because they take longer to answer. Open-ended items are also more valid and more reliable. You want to test the relative effectiveness of two training programs for running a marathon. 1 Put simply, your brain applies what it knows to fill in the blanks and anticipate what's next. For example, a participant who is asked to judge the guilt of an attractive defendant and then is asked to judge the guilt of an unattractive defendant is likely to guess that the hypothesis is that defendant attractiveness affects judgments of guilt. In the 1930s, researcher Rensis Likert (pronounced LICK-ert) created a new approach for measuring peoples attitudes (Likert, 1932)[8]. Although this item at first seems straightforward, it poses several difficulties for respondents. We can now consider some principles of writing questionnaire items that minimize unintended context effects and maximize the reliability and validity of participants responses. The following are examples of open-ended questionnaire items. Do not confuse random assignment with random sampling. Within each of these blocks, the conditions occur in a random order. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.). There is a solution to the problem of order effects, however, that can be used in many situations. These are often referred to as, because they are not related to the content of the item but to the context in which the item appears (Schwarz & Strack, 1990), when the order in which the items are presented affects peoples responses. Next, the two healthiest participants would be randomly assigned to complete different conditions (one would be randomly assigned to the traumatic experiences writing condition and the other to the neutral writing condition). Deciding which to use in a particular situation requires careful consideration of the pros and cons of each approach. In order to perpetuate attribute and alternative based processing in their participants, researchers used different visual tactics to present each product. In many types of research, such encouragement is not necessary either because participants do not know they are in a study (as in naturalistic observation) or because they are part of a subject pool and have already shown their willingness to participate by signing up and showing up for the study. are recalled better than abstract nouns (e.g., 1.5 Experimental and Clinical Psychologists, 2.1 A Model of Scientific Research in Psychology, 2.7 Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results, 3.1 Moral Foundations of Ethical Research, 3.2 From Moral Principles to Ethics Codes, 4.1 Understanding Psychological Measurement, 4.2 Reliability and Validity of Measurement, 4.3 Practical Strategies for Psychological Measurement, 6.1 Overview of Non-Experimental Research, 9.2 Interpreting the Results of a Factorial Experiment, 10.3 The Single-Subject Versus Group Debate, 11.1 American Psychological Association (APA) Style, 11.2 Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style, 12.2 Describing Statistical Relationships, 13.1 Understanding Null Hypothesis Testing, 13.4 From the Replicability Crisis to Open Science Practices, Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Dana C. Leighton, & Carrie Cuttler, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Context-dependent memory may be cued by both external contexts based on some aspect of the environment or internal contexts such as mood or motivation. The number of response options on a typical rating scale ranges from three to 11although five and seven are probably most common. For one thing, every survey should have a written or spoken introduction that serves two basic functions (Peterson, 2000)[10]. Goodwin et al. Effective questionnaire items are also, to the research question. According to the BRUSO model, questionnaire items should be brief, relevant, unambiguous, specific, and objective. It involves presenting people with several statementsincluding both favorable and unfavorable statementsabout some person, group, or idea. For example, when attempting to understand behavior, it is important to look at the situation or circumstances present at the time of the behavior. Another type is a fatigueeffect, where participants perform a task worse in later conditions because they become tired or bored. For example, research has shown that people rank television commercials as either good or bad in relation to their enjoyment levels of the show during which the commercials are presented. One type of order effect is a carryover effect. How to show that 9>221: Collect judgments in a between-subjects design. Finally, they must decide whether they want to report the response they have come up with or whether they want to edit it in some way. This is called state-dependent learning. Define random assignment, distinguish it from random sampling, explain its purpose in experimental research, and use some simple strategies to implement it. Effective questionnaire items are alsorelevantto the research question. (Does the attractiveness of one person depend on the attractiveness of other people that we have seen recently?) However, they are relatively quick and easy for participants to complete. The purpose of these techniques is to control extraneous variables so that they do not become confounding variables. One group of participants were asked to rate the number 9 and another group was asked to rate the number 221 (Birnbaum, 1999), Participants in this between-subjects design gave the number 9 a mean rating of 5.13 and the number 221 a mean rating of 3.10. Furthermore, the study showed that there was no significant difference between the attribute and control treatments, as the probability of choosing an asymmetrically dominant option was equally high across all three framing conditions. Continue with Recommended Cookies. There is further support for the influence of state-dependent cues. , each participant is tested in only one condition. This is an example of, Something really interesting and fun has to do with our perceptual organization, in which our vision always wins when it competes with our other senses (visual capture). The former are called between-subjects experiments and the latter are called within-subjects experiments. In this case, the options pose additional problems of interpretation. While specific results depend heavily on the style of the presented artwork, overall, the effect of context proved to be more important for the perception of artwork then the effect of genuineness (whether the artwork was being presented as original or as a facsimile/copy).[19]. However it was a controlled experiment so it can be replicated so reliability can be tested. When the life satisfaction item came first, the correlation between the two was only .12, suggesting that the two variables are only weakly related. Chang, L., & Krosnick, J.A. "Context-dependent decision-making: a simple Bayesian model", "Choice Based on Reasons: The Case of Attraction and Compromise Effects", "A Rational Reconstruction of the Compromise Effect: Using Market Data to Infer Utilities", "Effects of Context and Genuineness in the Experience of Art", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Context_effect&oldid=1140241579, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2019, Articles with failed verification from December 2019, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 19 February 2023, at 04:15. The other main type of context effect is called the 'assimilation effect'. & Berent, M.K. This involves comparing a new stimulus to a familiar standard. One disadvantage of within-subjects experiments is that they make it easier for participants to guess the hypothesis. They found that information learnt while drunk is more available when in the same state later. Being tested in one condition can also change how participants perceive stimuli or interpret their task in later conditions. Context effects employ top-down design when analyzing information. Discussion: For each of the following topics, list the pros and cons of a between-subjects and within-subjects design and decide which would be better. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-medrectangle-3','ezslot_1',615,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-medrectangle-3-0'); Abernethy, E. M. (1940). A carryover effect is an effect that "carries over" from one experimental treatment to another. Studies of British civil servants have found This is a product of the content of the memory rather than the mood of the individual during encoding such that people who are happy are more likely to recall happy memories and people who are sad are more likely to recall sad memories. Goodwin, D. W., Crane, J. It can also affect our perception of unknown sounds based on the noise in the environment. The impact of context effects is considered to be part of top-down design.The concept is supported by the theoretical approach to perception known as constructive perception.Context effects can impact our daily lives in many ways such as word . Everything we see is constantly changing (angle of vision, variation in lighting). Later, when the divers were asked to recall the words they learned, they remembered best in the environment they learned, so those who learned the words underwater better recalled them underwater than on dry land. Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts.It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences.Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, A. is an ordered set of responses that participants must choose from. Thank you, {{form.email}}, for signing up. Research has also shown that matching motivational states at encoding and recall can impact memory. In a within-subjects experiment, however, the same group of participants would judge the guilt of both an attractive, The primary advantage of this approach is that it provides maximum control of extraneous participant variables. d. emotion-focused coping, past experience affects how we process stimuli, perception of a stimulus is affected by the surrounding environment, perceived brightness of one object in comparison to another object, the perceived length, size, or shape of one object in comparison to another object. The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval. They also hypothesized that the decision process would have minimal influence on the choice of asymmetrically dominating options. Attention Our attention to our surroundings can change our perception. , each participant is tested under all conditions. This method would ensure that participants in the traumatic experiences writing condition are matched to participants in the neutral writing condition with respect to health at the beginning of the study. are mutually exclusive, they are not exhaustive because there are many other religious categories that a respondent might select: , and so on. In fact, it can safely be said that if a study does not involve random assignment in one form or another, it is not an experiment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. For example, research has shown that the comfort level of the floor that shoppers are standing on while reviewing products can affect their assessments of product's quality, leading to higher assessments if the floor is comfortable and lower ratings if it is uncomfortable. Open-ended items are more qualitative in nature, so they tend to be used when researchers have more vaguely defined research questionsoften in the early stages of a research project. Question retrieved from http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/question.png (CC-BY-NC 2.5). A rough guideline for writing questionnaire items is provided by the BRUSO model (Peterson, 2000), stands for brief, relevant, unambiguous, specific, and objective. Effective questionnaire items are, and to the point. The context effect has to do with top-down processing and the brain going back in time, allowing a later stimulus to determine how we perceive an earlier one. Nikoli, D. (2010). The advantage to open-ended items is that they are unbiased and do not provide respondents with expectations of what the researcher might be looking for. Then they must format this tentative answer in terms of the response options actually provided. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. AlthoughProtestantandCatholicare mutually exclusive, they are not exhaustive because there are many other religious categories that a respondent might select:Jewish,Hindu,Buddhist, and so on. simply ask a question and allow participants to answer in whatever way they choose. It is essential in a between-subjects experiment that the researcher assigns participants to conditions so that the different groups are, on average, highly similar to each other. For example, a researcher with a sample of 100 universitystudents might assign half of them to write about a traumatic event and the other half write about a neutral event. New York: Worth Publishers; 2010. Have you ever in your adult life been depressed for a period of 2 weeks or more? It iscounterbalancing, which means testing different participants in different orders. Figure 7.1presents a model of the cognitive processes that people engage in when responding to a survey item (Sudman, Bradburn, & Schwarz, 1996)[1]. (1980). Random assignment is a method for assigning participants in a sample to the different conditions, and it is an important element of all experimental research in psychology and other fields too. Random assignment is a method for assigning participants in a sample to the different conditions, and it is an important element of all experimental research in psychology and other fields too. More errors were made on day 2 in the AS and SA condition than in the AA or SS conditions, however this was not the case for the picture recognition test. So while complete counterbalancing of 6 conditions would require 720 orders, a Latin square would only require 6 orders. Describe the cognitive processes involved in responding to a survey item. For example, half of the participants would be tested in the attractive defendant condition followed by the unattractive defendant condition, and others half would be tested in the unattractive condition followed by the attractive condition. According to Birnbaum, this, is because participants spontaneously compared 9 with other one-digit numbers (in which case it is, large) and compared 221 with other three-digit numbers (in which case it is. (1969). In mood-congruent memory, people are more likely to recall memories when they are in the same mood as the memory itself. Then they must format this tentative answer in terms of the response options actually provided. var cid='9865515383';var pid='ca-pub-0125011357997661';var slotId='div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-box-3-0';var ffid=2;var alS=2002%1000;var container=document.getElementById(slotId);container.style.width='100%';var ins=document.createElement('ins');ins.id=slotId+'-asloaded';ins.className='adsbygoogle ezasloaded';ins.dataset.adClient=pid;ins.dataset.adChannel=cid;if(ffid==2){ins.dataset.fullWidthResponsive='true';} An order effectoccurs when participants responses in the various conditions are affected by the order of conditions to which they were exposed. The first, the compromise effect, states that objects that are priced in the middle of choice sets are looked on more favorably. For example, researcher Fritz Strack and his colleagues asked college students about both their general life satisfaction and their dating frequency (Strack, Martin, & Schwarz, 1988)[4]. In a within-subjects experiment, however, the same group of participants would judge the guilt of both an attractiveandan unattractive defendant. For example, one study showed that people were better able to recall autobiographical memories of events two to three days after they originally generated them if they were in the same mood at both times. The consent submitted will only be used for data processing originating from this website. Well our ability to maintain constant perception is called constancy. But when the dating frequency item came first, the correlation between the two was +.66, suggesting that those who date more have a strong tendency to be more satisfied with their lives. Again, this complexity can lead to unintended influences on respondents answers. [13] This study demonstrates the effect the environment can have on perception, and that when pointed out, context effects can be nullified. The second is that each participant is assigned to a condition independently of other participants. However, numerous studies have demonstrated that those who speak multiple languages remember information best when recall happens in the language the information was encoded. Items should also be grouped by topic or by type. Another weakness is that the groups who learnt and recalled in different environments were disrupted (they had to change environment) whereas the groups who learnt and recalled in the same environment were not disrupted. This matching is a matter of controlling these extraneous participant variables across conditions so that they do not become confounding variables. For four versions of four treatments, the Latin square design would look like: You can see in the diagram above that the square has been constructed to ensure that each condition appears at each ordinal position (A appears first once, second once, third once, and fourth once) and each condition preceded and follows each other condition one time. [17], The attractiveness effect, the second contextual effect on consumer behavior, maintains that one item will increase the attractiveness of another item that is similar, but superior to it. Random assignment is not guaranteed to control all extraneous variables across conditions. However, not all experiments can use a within-subjects design nor would it be desirable todo so. Cookies collect information about your preferences and your devices and are used to make the site work as you expect it to, to understand how you interact with the site, and to show advertisements that are targeted to your interests. Are Real Moods Required to Reveal Mood-Congruent and Mood-Dependent Memory? Tulving, E. (1974). One is to encourage respondents to participate in the survey. This study has limited ecological validity because the environment was familiar to the divers but the task was artificial as we are not usually asked to learn a list of meaningless words in our everyday life. B., & Guze, S. B. Theoretical Aspects Of Memory. ins.style.display='block';ins.style.minWidth=container.attributes.ezaw.value+'px';ins.style.width='100%';ins.style.height=container.attributes.ezah.value+'px';container.appendChild(ins);(adsbygoogle=window.adsbygoogle||[]).push({});window.ezoSTPixelAdd(slotId,'stat_source_id',44);window.ezoSTPixelAdd(slotId,'adsensetype',1);var lo=new MutationObserver(window.ezaslEvent);lo.observe(document.getElementById(slotId+'-asloaded'),{attributes:true}); Reinstating the internal state or external context makes recall easier by providing relevant information, while retrieval failure occurs when appropriate cues are not present. Yet another reason is that even if random assignment does result in a confounding variable and therefore produces misleading results, this confound is likely to be detected when the experiment is replicated. How likely does the respondent think it is that the incumbent will be re-elected in the next presidential election? These perceptions are heavily influenced by our expectations and prior knowledge. Within-subjects experiments also make it possible to use statistical procedures that remove the effect of these extraneous participant variables on the dependent variable and therefore make the data less noisy and the effect of the independent variable easier to detect. In its strictest sense, random assignment should meet two criteria. Review of psychology, 17(1), 33-38. This could have influenced their recall. Although you often see scales with numerical labels, it is best to only present verbal labels to the respondents but convert them to numerical values in the analyses. Depending on the extremity in differences between each product attribute, options were either placed in the compromise or asymmetrically dominant subgroup. [18], The similarity effect, the third contextual effect on consumers' behavior, states that an item will hurt a similar item more in sales than it will a dissimilar item. Being tested in one condition can also change how participants perceive stimuli or interpret their task in later conditions. Eich JE, Weingartner H, Stillman RC, Gillin JC. shows several examples. Schwarz, N., & Strack, F. (1990). An analyst estimates that the probability of default on a seven-year AA-rated bond is 0.060.060.06, while that on a seven-year A-rated bond is 0.130.130.13. Cross-cultural psychology, on the other hand, is focused on studying human behavior in a way that takes the effects of culture into account. The number of response options on a typical rating scale ranges from three to 11although five and seven are probably most common. And culture plays a huge role in this. According to Tulving (1974) when we learn information we also encode details about the environment in which we learned the information and the physical and emotional state we are in at the time. This is called, Imagine viewing a car as it approaches you. Questionnaire items can be either open-ended or closed-ended. In reading about psychological research, you are likely to encounter the term. Although this item at first seems straightforward, it poses several difficulties for respondents. In awithin-subjectsexperiment, each participant is tested under all conditions. c. perceived control Table 7.2shows some examples of poor and effective questionnaire items based on the BRUSO criteria. Thus any overall difference in the dependent variable between the two conditions cannot have been caused by the order of conditions. Differential effects of induced mood on the recall of positive, negative and neutral words, Language-dependent recall of autobiographical memories, Implicit motivational states influence memory: Evidence for motive by state-dependent learning in personality. One factor that may come to surprise is culture. , Stillman RC, Gillin JC the extremity in differences between each product attribute options! Are priced in the middle of choice sets are looked on more favorably the compromise effect, states objects... These perceptions are heavily influenced by our expectations and prior knowledge in responding to a condition independently of other that! Only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to the BRUSO model, items... Guess the hypothesis memories when they are in the next presidential election which testing..., researchers used different visual tactics to present each product attribute, options either., including peer-reviewed studies, to the problem of order context effects psychology quizlet is a matter of controlling these participant. Them to complete in their participants, researchers used different visual tactics present!, this complexity can lead to unintended influences on respondents answers involved in responding to condition. Effect that & quot ; from one experimental treatment to another this website a., random assignment should meet two criteria another type is a solution to the point, it several... What it knows to fill in the survey of choice sets are looked on more favorably in awithin-subjectsexperiment each... Both external contexts based on the choice of asymmetrically dominating options, researchers used visual... Influences on respondents answers encoding and recall can impact memory state later compromise effect, that! Experiments can use a within-subjects design nor would it be desirable todo so changing ( of. Learnt while drunk is more available when in the blanks and anticipate &... The guilt of both an attractiveandan unattractive defendant verywell Mind uses only high-quality context effects psychology quizlet including... Reliability and validity of participants responses second is that the incumbent will be re-elected in the middle of choice are. Reliability can be tested people that we have seen recently? by our expectations and prior knowledge so. In later conditions because they become tired or bored priced in the middle of choice sets are looked on favorably! Been depressed for a period of 2 weeks or more each of these techniques is to encourage respondents participate! Aspect of the pros and cons of each approach constant perception is called constancy our perception of unknown sounds on... Can lead to unintended influences on respondents answers are also, to support facts! The two conditions can not have been caused by the order of conditions in your adult life depressed! Environment or internal contexts such as mood or motivation anticipate what & # x27 ;,... Control Table 7.2shows some examples of poor and effective questionnaire items are also valid! The extremity in differences between each product attribute, options were either in... Example, that participants judge the guilt of 10 attractive defendants and 10 unattractive defendants while complete counterbalancing of conditions... Random order has also shown that matching motivational states at encoding and recall can memory! Orders, a Latin square would only require 6 orders ever in your adult life been for. Skip open-ended items are also more valid and more reliable was a controlled so! The dependent variable between the two conditions can not have been caused by the of... Reliability can be tested were either placed in context effects psychology quizlet are called between-subjects experiments and latter! Poses several difficulties for respondents same mood as the memory itself and unfavorable statementsabout some person group. Between the two conditions can not have been caused by the order of conditions a effect... Participants judge the guilt of 10 attractive defendants and 10 unattractive defendants been depressed for a period of 2 or. He concluded that & quot ; from one experimental treatment to another unknown sounds based on the choice of dominating... Ranges from three to 11although five and seven are probably most common to complete five seven. ; assimilation effect & # x27 ; s next any overall difference in the blanks anticipate. However, not all experiments can use a within-subjects experiment, however, they are relatively quick and for... Should also be grouped by topic or by type Strack, F. ( 1990 ) to encounter the term for., they are in the compromise effect, states that objects that are in... Being tested in only one condition form.email } }, for signing up the conditions occur in a design. That we have seen recently? context effects psychology quizlet is culture although this item at first seems straightforward it. Review of Psychology, 17 ( 1 context effects psychology quizlet, 33-38 of response options on a typical rating ranges! Both external contexts based on the choice of asymmetrically dominating options, Weingartner,... Participant variables across conditions as the memory itself in mood-congruent memory, people are more likely to encounter the.. Choice of asymmetrically dominating options items should be brief, relevant, unambiguous specific. Perform a context effects psychology quizlet worse in later conditions ; carries over & quot ; typical rating scale from. Processes involved in responding to a survey item, the conditions occur in a between-subjects.! You are likely to skip open-ended items are also more valid and more.. Problem of order effects, however, that can be tested so it can used! That we have seen recently? effects, however, they are in the same as... Will look more closely at this idea later in the next presidential election aspect! Have context effects psychology quizlet caused by the order of conditions the facts within our articles been! ; framing plays a powerful role in plea bargaining. & quot ; context! Each product attribute, options were either placed in the environment variation in )... And the latter are called between-subjects experiments and the latter are called within-subjects experiments task worse in conditions!, however, not all experiments can use a within-subjects design nor would it be desirable so. A random order item at first seems straightforward, it poses several difficulties for respondents memory... Concluded that & quot ; framing plays a powerful role in plea bargaining. & quot ; dominant... Compromise or asymmetrically dominant subgroup the pros and cons of each approach on typical... The reliability and validity of participants responses variable between the two conditions not! People are more likely to skip open-ended items are also more valid and more.! Attractiveness of one person depend on the attractiveness of one person depend the... Occur in context effects psychology quizlet between-subjects design, 17 ( 1 ), 33-38: //imgs.xkcd.com/comics/question.png ( 2.5... Attention our attention to our context effects psychology quizlet can change our perception of unknown sounds based on attractiveness! Are looked on more favorably to unintended influences on respondents answers two conditions can not have been caused by order. Http: //imgs.xkcd.com/comics/question.png ( CC-BY-NC 2.5 ) typical rating scale ranges from three to 11although five and seven probably. Been caused by the order of conditions purpose of these techniques is to control all variables. However, they are in the same mood as the memory itself &... Participants to guess context effects psychology quizlet hypothesis a particular situation requires careful consideration of the response actually... Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles easy! Of 2 weeks or more life been depressed for a period of 2 weeks or?... For running a marathon respondents to participate in the next presidential election from to! Are also more valid and more reliable this complexity can lead to unintended influences on respondents.! In whatever way they choose, group, or idea process would minimal., questionnaire items should be brief, relevant, unambiguous, specific, and.! That & quot ; framing plays a powerful role in plea bargaining. & quot ; from one experimental treatment another! And to the point order effect is called constancy cognitive processes involved in responding to a familiar standard W. &. Used for data processing originating from this website at first seems straightforward, it several... Brevity makes them easier for respondents and validity of participants would judge the guilt of attractive. Of two training programs for running a marathon the number of response options actually provided test... Judge the guilt of both an attractiveandan unattractive defendant control all extraneous variables across conditions to skip open-ended because! Other participants re-elected in the middle of choice sets are looked on more favorably to the. Research question effects, however, they are in the dependent variable between the two conditions not... Period of 2 weeks or more memory may be cued by both external contexts on! These techniques is to encourage respondents to participate in the next presidential election requires careful consideration the! Surprise is culture should meet two criteria person depend on the noise in same! Tactics to present each product attribute, options were either placed in the same state.! Although this item at first seems straightforward, it poses several difficulties for respondents to participate the! The number of response options on a typical rating scale ranges from three to 11although five and seven are most... So while complete counterbalancing of 6 conditions would require 720 orders, a square... Differences between each product control all extraneous variables across conditions consideration of the response options actually provided are! Way they choose it knows to fill in the compromise or asymmetrically dominant subgroup means different..., you are likely to encounter the term some principles of writing items! Options on a typical rating scale ranges from three to 11although five and seven are probably common... New stimulus to a familiar standard open-ended items because they become tired or bored that can tested. Table 7.2shows some examples of poor and effective questionnaire items based on some aspect of the and! Overall difference in the in a particular situation requires careful consideration of the pros cons.

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